Statistics · Updated November 10, 2026
Caffeine Statistics 2026
Includes USDA's 2021-2023 NHANES caffeine data and America's Poison Centers' 2024 report
- 90statistics
- 37sources from 16 publishers
- Checkedevery figure against its original source
- FreeCSV download and ready-made citations
Compiled by the Brew Gazette research desk from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Health Canada, America's Poison Centers and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) data.
US adults aged 20 and over consumed an average of 148.9 mg of caffeine a day in August 2021 to August 2023, according to USDA's What We Eat in America survey. Coffee supplies about 69% of Americans' caffeine. The FDA cites 400 mg a day as an amount not generally associated with negative effects for most adults.
Key findings
- 69%
About 69% of Americans aged 2 and over drank at least one caffeinated beverage on the survey day in 2022, according to a Kantar Worldpanel one-day beverage survey of 49,700 people analysed by Mitchell et al.
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data
- 148.9 mg
US adults aged 20 and over consumed a mean of 148.9 mg of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023, according to USDA's What We Eat in America survey (NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data
- 69%
Coffee supplied 69% of caffeine intake across all age groups in 2022, followed by carbonated soft drinks (15.4%), tea (8.8%) and energy drinks (6.3%), according to Mitchell et al. (Kantar Worldpanel).
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data
- 95 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put an 8-fluid-ounce cup of brewed coffee at about 95 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data
- 400 mg
For most adults, the FDA (2024) cites 400 mg of caffeine a day, about two to three 12-fluid-ounce cups of coffee, as an amount not generally associated with negative effects.
- 1,200 mg
The FDA (2024) estimates that toxic effects such as seizures can be seen when someone rapidly consumes around 1,200 mg of caffeine, less than half a teaspoon of pure caffeine powder.
- 8%
In a survey of 1,006 U.S. adults who consume caffeine, published in 2020 by Johns Hopkins researchers (Sweeney et al.), 8% met all three key DSM-5 proposed criteria for caffeine use disorder.
Sweeney et al., Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research (2020) · 2020 data
- 50%
In experimental studies reviewed by Juliano and Griffiths (2004), 50% of habitual caffeine users who abstained developed a headache.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data
- 2,751
U.S. poison centers recorded 2,751 single-substance caffeine exposure cases in 2024, according to America's Poison Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS).
- 3,200 mg
One teaspoon of powdered pure caffeine can contain about 3,200 mg of caffeine, the equivalent of 28 cups of coffee, the FDA said in its 2018 guidance.
How many Americans consume caffeine?
Estimates range from about 7 in 10 to about 9 in 10 Americans, depending on the survey and the measure. Industry beverage panels count people who drank at least one caffeinated beverage in a day, while studies of the federal NHANES survey count anyone with any caffeine (food or drink) on a single 24-hour recall day.
- 69%
About 69% of Americans aged 2 and over drank at least one caffeinated beverage on the survey day in 2022, according to a Kantar Worldpanel one-day beverage survey of 49,700 people analysed by Mitchell et al.
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data [1]
- 85%
In Kantar Worldpanel 7-day beverage diaries from 2010-2011, 85% of the US population aged 2 and over drank at least one caffeinated beverage per day, according to Mitchell et al. (2014).
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2014), Kantar Worldpanel Beverage Consumption Panel · 2010-2011 data [2]
- 89%
About 89% of US adults aged 19 and over consumed some caffeine on any given day in NHANES 2001-2010, with equal shares of men and women, according to Fulgoni et al.
Fulgoni et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2015), analysis of NHANES 2001-2010 · 2001-2010 data [3]
- 73%
About 73% of US children and young people aged 2 to 22 consumed caffeine on a given day in NHANES 1999-2010, a share that did not change over the period, according to CDC researchers Branum et al.
Branum et al., Pediatrics (2014), analysis of NHANES 1999-2010 · 1999-2010 data [4]
- 63%
Even among US children aged 2 to 5, 63% consumed some caffeine on a given day in NHANES 1999-2010, rising to about 75% in older age groups (Branum et al.).
Branum et al., Pediatrics (2014), analysis of NHANES 1999-2010 · 1999-2010 data [4]
How much caffeine do Americans consume per day?
The federal benchmark is USDA's What We Eat in America (WWEIA), which reports mean caffeine from food and beverages per person, counting non-consumers as zero, from day 1 of the NHANES 24-hour dietary recall. Industry panels and research papers often report intake among consumers only, which gives higher figures.
Source: USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES 2001-2002 to August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (each cycle). Chart: Brew Gazette, free to reuse with a link to this page.
Show chart data
| 2001-02 | 142.1 |
|---|---|
| 2003-04 | 150.8 |
| 2005-06 | 149.8 |
| 2007-08 | 148.8 |
| 2009-10 | 142.4 |
| 2011-12 | 137.5 |
| 2013-14 | 132 |
| 2015-16 | 136.6 |
| 2017-20 | 134.9 |
| 2021-23 | 118.7 |
- 118.7 mg
Americans aged 2 and over consumed a mean of 118.7 mg of caffeine per day from food and beverages in August 2021 to August 2023, according to USDA's What We Eat in America survey (NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 148.9 mg
US adults aged 20 and over consumed a mean of 148.9 mg of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023, according to USDA's What We Eat in America survey (NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 19.4 mg
US children and teens aged 2 to 19 consumed a mean of 19.4 mg of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023 (USDA What We Eat in America, NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 12%
Mean daily caffeine intake for Americans aged 2 and over was 12% lower in August 2021 to August 2023 (118.7 mg) than in 2017 to March 2020 (134.9 mg), a Brew Gazette calculation from USDA What We Eat in America tables; the 2021-2023 recalls were collected by telephone rather than in person, which may affect comparability.
Brew Gazette calculation from USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, Table 1 for NHANES August 2021-August 2023 and for 2017-March 2020 · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 150.8 mg
The highest mean in the WWEIA series since 2001 was 150.8 mg of caffeine per day for Americans aged 2 and over, recorded in NHANES 2003-2004 (USDA What We Eat in America).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES 2003-2004, Table 1 · 2003-2004 data [6]
- 210 mg
Americans aged 2 and over who drank caffeinated beverages took in a mean of 210 mg of caffeine per day from beverages in 2022, according to a Kantar Worldpanel survey analysed by Mitchell et al.
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data [1]
- 14%
An estimated 14% of US adults aged 19 and over exceeded 400 mg of caffeine per day, based on usual intake in NHANES 2001-2010 (Fulgoni et al.).
Fulgoni et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2015), analysis of NHANES 2001-2010 · 2001-2010 data [3]
How does caffeine intake vary by age and sex?
Caffeine intake climbs steeply through adulthood, peaks in the 50s and declines from there, most clearly after 70. Men consume more than women from their 30s on. USDA's newest figures are means per person (non-consumers count as zero); other studies report consumers only.
- 168.5 mg
US men aged 20 and over consumed a mean of 168.5 mg of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023 (USDA What We Eat in America, NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 130.4 mg
US women aged 20 and over consumed a mean of 130.4 mg of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023 (USDA What We Eat in America, NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 218.5 mg
Men aged 50 to 59 had the highest mean caffeine intake of any age and sex group in August 2021 to August 2023, 218.5 mg per day (USDA What We Eat in America, NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 28.8 mg
US teens aged 12 to 19 consumed a mean of 28.8 mg (boys) and 32.7 mg (girls) of caffeine per day in August 2021 to August 2023 (USDA What We Eat in America, NHANES).
USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) · 2021-2023 data [5]
- 246 mg
Among US caffeine consumers in 2022, intake from beverages was highest at ages 50 to 64 (246 mg per day) and lowest at ages 2 to 5 (42 mg per day), according to Mitchell et al. (Kantar Worldpanel).
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data [1]
| Age (years) | Males (mg/day) | Females (mg/day) |
|---|---|---|
| 2-5 | 5.2 | 4.9 |
| 6-11 | 11.2 | 12.7 |
| 12-19 | 28.8 | 32.7 |
| 20-29 | 93.3 | 89.6 |
| 30-39 | 165.9 | 115.2 |
| 40-49 | 175.0 | 145.1 |
| 50-59 | 218.5 | 151.2 |
| 60-69 | 199.1 | 149.9 |
| 70 and over | 155.6 | 132.5 |
| 2-19 (all) | 18.1 | 20.7 |
| 20 and over (all) | 168.5 | 130.4 |
| 2 and over (all) | 131.8 | 106.0 |
Source: USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024)
Where does Americans' caffeine come from?
Coffee supplies roughly two-thirds of the caffeine Americans consume, with soft drinks and tea well behind. Among children and young people, soda once supplied most caffeine, but coffee and energy drinks have taken a growing share.
Source: Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022. Chart: Brew Gazette, free to reuse with a link to this page.
Show chart data
| Coffee | 69% |
|---|---|
| Carbonated soft drinks | 15.4% |
| Tea | 8.8% |
| Energy drinks | 6.3% |
- 69%
Coffee supplied 69% of caffeine intake across all age groups in 2022, followed by carbonated soft drinks (15.4%), tea (8.8%) and energy drinks (6.3%), according to Mitchell et al. (Kantar Worldpanel).
Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 · 2022 data [1]
- 64%
Among US adults in NHANES 2001-2010, beverages provided 98% of caffeine, with coffee about 64%, soft drinks about 18%, tea about 16% and energy drinks under 1% (Fulgoni et al.).
Fulgoni et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2015), analysis of NHANES 2001-2010 · 2001-2010 data [3]
- 21 mg
Caffeine from soda fell from 41 mg to 21 mg per day per person between NHANES 1999-2000 and 2011-2012, the main driver of the overall decline in caffeine intake (Drewnowski and Rehm).
Drewnowski and Rehm, Nutrients (2016), analysis of NHANES 1999-2012 · 1999-2012 data [8]
How much caffeine is in coffee, tea, soda and energy drinks?
Database averages, regulator ranges and lab measurements all show the same thing: coffee is usually the biggest source of caffeine per cup, and the amount varies widely from cup to cup. US packaged foods must list added caffeine as an ingredient, but restaurants are not required to say how much a drink contains (FDA, 2024).
Source: European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine. Chart: Brew Gazette, free to reuse with a link to this page.
Show chart data
| Filter coffee (200 ml) | 90 mg |
|---|---|
| Espresso (60 ml) | 80 mg |
| Energy drink can (250 ml) | 80 mg |
| Black tea (220 ml) | 50 mg |
| Cola can (355 ml) | 40 mg |
| Plain chocolate bar (50 g) | 25 mg |
| Milk chocolate bar (50 g) | 10 mg |
- 95 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put an 8-fluid-ounce cup of brewed coffee at about 95 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data [9]
- 63 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put a 1-fluid-ounce shot of restaurant espresso at about 63 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data [10]
- 47 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put an 8-fluid-ounce cup of brewed black tea at about 47 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data [11]
- 33 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put a 12-fluid-ounce can of regular cola at about 33 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data [12]
- 75 mg
USDA FoodData Central data (SR Legacy, final release 2018) put an 8.4-fluid-ounce can of Red Bull at about 75 mg of caffeine for US consumers (Brew Gazette calculation from the per-100 g value).
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation · 2018 data [13]
- 113 to 247 mg
The FDA (2024) gives a typical range of 113 to 247 mg of caffeine in a 12-fluid-ounce cup of regular brewed, non-specialty coffee in the US.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- 54 to 328 mg
According to the FDA (2024), energy drinks sold in the US generally contain 54 to 328 mg of caffeine per 16 fluid ounces.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- 2 to 15 mg
The FDA (2024) says decaf coffee typically has 2 to 15 mg of caffeine in an 8-fluid-ounce cup, so decaffeinated does not mean caffeine-free.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- 259 to 564 mg
A 2003 Journal of Analytical Toxicology study found the same coffee beverage, bought from the same US coffee shop on six consecutive days, ranged from 259 to 564 mg of caffeine per serving.
McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of specialty coffees. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2003;27(7):520-522 (abstract on PubMed) · 2003 data [15]
- 188 mg
The same 2003 study (McCusker et al.) measured a mean of 188 mg of caffeine in a 16-ounce cup of brewed specialty coffee from US coffee shops.
McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of specialty coffees. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2003;27(7):520-522 (abstract on PubMed) · 2003 data [15]
- 0 to 13.9 mg
A 2006 Journal of Analytical Toxicology study found 10 decaffeinated coffees from different US outlets contained 0 to 13.9 mg of caffeine per 16-ounce serving.
McCusker RR, Fuehrlein B, Goldberger BA, Gold MS, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of decaffeinated coffee. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2006;30(8):611-613 (abstract on PubMed) · 2006 data [16]
- 135 mg
Health Canada (2025) lists an average of 135 mg of caffeine in an 8-ounce (237 ml) cup of brewed coffee.
Health Canada, Caffeine in Foods · 2025 data [17]
| Food or drink | FDC ID | Caffeine (mg per 100 g) | Serving (USDA portion) | Caffeine per serving (mg) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brewed coffee | 171890 | 40 | 1 cup (8 fl oz), 237 g | 95 |
| Espresso, restaurant-prepared | 171891 | 212 | 1 fl oz, 29.6 g | 63 |
| Instant coffee, prepared with water | 174130 | 26 | 1 serving (6 fl oz), 179 g | 47 |
| Brewed coffee, decaffeinated | 171889 | 1 | 1 cup (8 fl oz), 237 g | 2 |
| Black tea, brewed | 173227 | 20 | 1 cup (8 fl oz), 237 g | 47 |
| Green tea, brewed | 171917 | 12 | 1 cup, 245 g | 29 |
| Cola, regular | 174852 | 9 | 1 can or bottle (12 fl oz), 370 g | 33 |
| Red Bull energy drink | 173210 | 29 | 1 can (8.4 fl oz), 258 g | 75 |
| Dark chocolate, 70-85% cacao | 170273 | 80 | 1 oz, 28.35 g | 23 |
How much caffeine is too much?
US, European and Canadian regulators all put the daily level for healthy adults at 400 mg. They differ on single doses, children and pregnancy, so each authority's figure is listed separately.
- 400 mg
For most adults, the FDA (2024) cites 400 mg of caffeine a day, about two to three 12-fluid-ounce cups of coffee, as an amount not generally associated with negative effects.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- 1,200 mg
The FDA (2024) estimates that toxic effects such as seizures can be seen when someone rapidly consumes around 1,200 mg of caffeine, less than half a teaspoon of pure caffeine powder.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- Under age 2
The FDA's 2024 consumer update repeats the Dietary Guidelines for Americans advice that drinks containing caffeine should be avoided for children under age 2.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) · 2024 data [14]
- 400 mg
EFSA's 2015 safety opinion found that caffeine intakes of up to 400 mg a day (about 5.7 mg per kg of body weight), spread through the day, do not raise safety concerns for healthy adults other than pregnant women.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine · 2015 data [18]
- 200 mg
EFSA (2015) concluded that single doses of up to 200 mg of caffeine, about 3 mg per kg of body weight, do not raise safety concerns for healthy adults.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine · 2015 data [18]
- 3 mg/kg
EFSA (2015) proposed a safety level of 3 mg of caffeine per kg of body weight per day for habitual consumption by children and adolescents.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine · 2015 data [18]
- 400 mg
Health Canada's recommended maximum daily caffeine intake for adults aged 18 and over is 400 mg (page updated 2025).
Health Canada, Caffeine in Foods · 2025 data [17]
- 2.5 mg per kg
Health Canada (2025) recommends a maximum of 2.5 mg of caffeine per kg of body weight a day for children and adolescents up to 18 years, a precautionary limit it says healthy older teens may be able to exceed.
Health Canada, Caffeine in Foods · 2025 data [17]
- No place
The American Academy of Pediatrics concluded in its 2011 clinical report that the caffeine and other stimulants in energy drinks have no place in the diet of children and adolescents.
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), Sports Drinks and Energy Drinks for Children and Adolescents: Are They Appropriate? (clinical report, Pediatrics 2011;127(6):1182-1189), abstract on PubMed · 2011 data [20]
| Authority (year) | Healthy adults | Single dose | Pregnancy and breastfeeding | Children and teens |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| FDA, US (2024) | 400 mg a day | No limit set; toxic effects around 1,200 mg taken rapidly | Talk to a health care provider | Cites AAP advice against energy drinks; Dietary Guidelines: avoid caffeinated drinks under age 2 |
| EFSA, EU (2015) | 400 mg a day | 200 mg | 200 mg a day | 3 mg per kg a day |
| Health Canada (2025) | 400 mg a day | Not set | 300 mg a day (also when planning a pregnancy) | 2.5 mg per kg a day, up to age 18 |
| NHS, UK (2026) | Not covered on this page | Not covered | No more than 200 mg a day in pregnancy | Not covered |
| ACOG, US (2010, reaffirmed 2026) | Not covered | Not covered | Under 200 mg a day is moderate | Not covered |
| AAP, US (2011; 2025) | Not covered | Not covered | Not covered | Energy drinks have no place in the diet; avoiding caffeine is best for all kids |
How much caffeine is safe during pregnancy?
Pregnancy limits range from 200 mg a day (EFSA, NHS) to 300 mg (Health Canada), and ACOG calls under 200 mg a day moderate. Caffeine also stays in the body far longer during pregnancy.
- 200 mg
ACOG's Committee Opinion 462 (2010, reaffirmed 2026) states that moderate caffeine consumption, less than 200 mg a day, does not appear to be a major contributing factor in miscarriage or preterm birth in pregnant women.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), Committee Opinion No. 462: Moderate Caffeine Consumption During Pregnancy · 2010 data [21]
- 200 mg
EFSA (2015) found that caffeine intakes from all sources of up to 200 mg a day, spread through the day, do not raise safety concerns for the fetus of pregnant or breastfeeding women.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine · 2015 data [18]
- 300 mg
Health Canada (2025) sets a recommended maximum of 300 mg of caffeine a day for people who are pregnant, planning to become pregnant or breastfeeding.
Health Canada, Caffeine in Foods · 2025 data [17]
- 200 mg
The NHS (page reviewed June 2026) tells pregnant women in the UK not to have more than 200 mg of caffeine a day, citing links between too much caffeine and a higher chance of miscarriage and stillbirth.
NHS (UK National Health Service), Foods to avoid in pregnancy · 2026 data [22]
- 8.3 hours
A 1981 study in the European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology measured a mean caffeine half-life of 8.3 hours in 57 pregnant women, against 3.4 hours in 25 adult men and non-pregnant women.
Knutti R, Rothweiler H, Schlatter C. Effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 1981;21(2):121-126 (abstract on PubMed) · 1981 data [23]
- 3 to 16 hours
In the same 1981 study (Knutti et al.), caffeine half-life ranged from 3 to 16 hours among pregnant women, and in most cases returned to normal within one month of delivery.
Knutti R, Rothweiler H, Schlatter C. Effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 1981;21(2):121-126 (abstract on PubMed) · 1981 data [23]
How long does caffeine last?
Caffeine peaks in the blood within two hours and takes about 5 hours on average to fall by half. A large dose late in the afternoon can still shorten sleep.
- 5 hours
The Institute of Medicine (2001) reports a mean caffeine half-life in the plasma of healthy individuals of about 5 hours, with a range of 1.5 to 9.5 hours.
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research, Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance (2001), chapter 2: Pharmacology of Caffeine (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2001 data [24]
- 15 to 120 minutes
According to the Institute of Medicine (2001), peak caffeine levels in the blood occur between 15 and 120 minutes after swallowing it, and 99 percent is absorbed within 45 minutes.
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research, Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance (2001), chapter 2: Pharmacology of Caffeine (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2001 data [24]
- Double
The Institute of Medicine (2001) notes that oral contraceptive use can double caffeine's half-life in women, while smoking speeds up caffeine metabolism.
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research, Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance (2001), chapter 2: Pharmacology of Caffeine (NCBI Bookshelf) · 2001 data [24]
- More than 1 hour
In a 2013 Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine study of 12 healthy sleepers, 400 mg of caffeine taken 6 hours before bed still cut sleep by more than 1 hour.
Drake C, Roehrs T, Shambroom J, Roth T. Caffeine Effects on Sleep Taken 0, 3, or 6 Hours before Going to Bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 2013;9(11):1195-1200 (PMC) · 2013 data [25]
- 1.1 to 1.2 hours
Measured objectively with an in-home sleep monitor, 400 mg of caffeine taken 0, 3 or 6 hours before bed reduced total sleep time by 1.1 to 1.2 hours versus placebo (Drake et al., 2013).
Drake C, Roehrs T, Shambroom J, Roth T. Caffeine Effects on Sleep Taken 0, 3, or 6 Hours before Going to Bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 2013;9(11):1195-1200 (PMC) · 2013 data [25]
- 41 minutes
In sleep diaries kept by the same 12 adults in the 2013 Drake study, 400 mg of caffeine 6 hours before bed reduced self-reported total sleep time by 41 minutes, a result that approached but did not reach significance.
Drake C, Roehrs T, Shambroom J, Roth T. Caffeine Effects on Sleep Taken 0, 3, or 6 Hours before Going to Bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 2013;9(11):1195-1200 (PMC) · 2013 data [25]
- 6 hours
The 2013 Drake study authors concluded their results support sleep hygiene advice to avoid substantial caffeine for at least 6 hours before bedtime.
Drake C, Roehrs T, Shambroom J, Roth T. Caffeine Effects on Sleep Taken 0, 3, or 6 Hours before Going to Bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 2013;9(11):1195-1200 (PMC) · 2013 data [25]
- 100 mg
EFSA (2015) found that a single 100 mg dose of caffeine (about 1.4 mg per kg of body weight) may affect sleep duration and patterns in some adults, particularly close to bedtime.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine · 2015 data [18]
- More than 8 hours
The American Academy of Pediatrics' HealthyChildren.org (2025) says caffeine can stay in the body for more than 8 hours, depending on a person's metabolism.
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), HealthyChildren.org: The Effects of Caffeine on Kids: A Parent's Guide · 2025 data [26]
How common is caffeine addiction (caffeine use disorder)?
Caffeine use disorder is not yet an official diagnosis. The American Psychiatric Association lists caffeine intoxication and caffeine withdrawal in the DSM-5-TR, but places caffeine use disorder in the section for conditions that need further research. Studies that apply the proposed criteria find it in a small share of everyday caffeine users and in most people who seek treatment.
- 8%
In a survey of 1,006 U.S. adults who consume caffeine, published in 2020 by Johns Hopkins researchers (Sweeney et al.), 8% met all three key DSM-5 proposed criteria for caffeine use disorder.
Sweeney et al., Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research (2020) · 2020 data [27]
- 34%
34% of the 1,006 U.S. caffeine consumers in the 2020 Sweeney et al. survey reported a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down on caffeine, the most common of the three key criteria.
Sweeney et al., Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research (2020) · 2020 data [27]
- 72% to 84%
Among people seeking treatment for problematic caffeine use, 72% to 84% met all three key criteria for caffeine use disorder, according to the studies summarized by Sweeney et al. (2020).
Sweeney et al., Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research (2020) · 2020 data [27]
- 9%
A 2013 review of caffeine dependence studies by Meredith et al. estimated that caffeine use disorder affects less than or equal to 9% of caffeine users in the general population, based on a 1998 Vermont survey.
Meredith et al., Journal of Caffeine Research (2013) · 1998 data [28]
- 56%
56% of 162 randomly selected caffeine users in a 1998 University of Vermont telephone survey (Hughes et al.) reported a strong desire or an unsuccessful attempt to stop using caffeine.
Hughes et al., Drug and Alcohol Dependence (1998) · 1998 data [29]
- 2 to 3 cups
The American Psychiatric Association said in its 2013 DSM-5 fact sheet that research shows as little as 2 to 3 cups of coffee can trigger withdrawal, while DSM-5 would not include caffeine use disorder as a diagnosis.
American Psychiatric Association (APA), DSM-5 fact sheet (2013) · 2013 data [30]
How common is caffeine withdrawal?
Caffeine withdrawal is a recognized diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5-TR. The most cited figures come from a 2004 review of experimental and survey studies by Laura Juliano (American University) and Roland Griffiths (Johns Hopkins), which found headache in half of people who stopped caffeine in experiments.
- 50%
In experimental studies reviewed by Juliano and Griffiths (2004), 50% of habitual caffeine users who abstained developed a headache.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 13%
13% of people in experimental caffeine abstinence studies had clinically significant distress or functional impairment, according to the 2004 Juliano and Griffiths review.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 12 to 24 hours
Caffeine withdrawal symptoms typically begin 12 to 24 hours after the last dose, according to the 2004 Juliano and Griffiths review of experimental studies.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 20 to 51 hours
Caffeine withdrawal symptoms typically peak 20 to 51 hours after the last dose, the 2004 Juliano and Griffiths review found.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 2 to 9 days
Caffeine withdrawal typically lasts 2 to 9 days, according to the 2004 Juliano and Griffiths review.
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 100 mg a day
Stopping doses as low as 100 mg of caffeine a day produced withdrawal symptoms in the studies reviewed by Juliano and Griffiths (2004).
Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) · 2004 data [31]
- 24%
Among caffeine users who had tried to stop permanently, 24% met DSM-IV research criteria for caffeine withdrawal, a 1998 University of Vermont survey of 162 users (Hughes et al.) found.
Hughes et al., Drug and Alcohol Dependence (1998) · 1998 data [29]
How many caffeine overdoses and poison center calls are there?
U.S. poison centers log a few thousand caffeine exposures a year, and nearly half involve young children. Deaths are rare. Emergency department visits tied to energy drinks doubled between 2007 and 2011, according to the most recent federal DAWN estimates (SAMHSA, 2013).
Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), The DAWN Report (2013). Chart: Brew Gazette, free to reuse with a link to this page.
Show chart data
| 2007 | 10,068 |
|---|---|
| 2008 | 16,059 |
| 2009 | 13,119 |
| 2010 | 15,219 |
| 2011 | 20,783 |
- 2,751
U.S. poison centers recorded 2,751 single-substance caffeine exposure cases in 2024, according to America's Poison Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS).
America's Poison Centers, 2024 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2025) · 2024 data [32]
- 1,305
1,305 of the single-substance caffeine exposures reported to U.S. poison centers in 2024 involved children aged 5 or younger, NPDS data from America's Poison Centers show.
America's Poison Centers, 2024 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2025) · 2024 data [32]
- 2
Single-substance caffeine exposures reported to U.S. poison centers led to 2 deaths and 16 major outcomes in 2024, according to America's Poison Centers' NPDS.
America's Poison Centers, 2024 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2025) · 2024 data [32]
- 2,665
U.S. poison centers recorded 2,665 single-substance caffeine exposure cases in 2023, according to the NPDS 2023 annual report from America's Poison Centers.
America's Poison Centers, 2023 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2024) · 2023 data [33]
- 1,418
U.S. poison centers recorded 1,418 single-substance exposures to caffeine-containing energy drinks in 2024, plus 869 for energy drinks with caffeine only, according to the NPDS.
America's Poison Centers, 2024 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2025) · 2024 data [32]
- 20,783
Emergency department visits involving energy drinks doubled from 10,068 in 2007 to 20,783 in 2011 in the United States, according to SAMHSA's Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN).
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), The DAWN Report (2013) · 2011 data [34]
- 279%
Energy drink emergency department visits among U.S. patients aged 40 or older rose 279%, from 1,382 in 2007 to 5,233 in 2011, SAMHSA's DAWN data show.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), The DAWN Report (2013) · 2011 data [34]
- 58%
In 2011, 58% of U.S. energy drink emergency department visits involved energy drinks only, with no other drug, according to SAMHSA's DAWN.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), The DAWN Report (2013) · 2011 data [34]
- 3,200 mg
One teaspoon of powdered pure caffeine can contain about 3,200 mg of caffeine, the equivalent of 28 cups of coffee, the FDA said in its 2018 guidance.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Guidance for Industry: Highly Concentrated Caffeine in Dietary Supplements (2018) · 2018 data [35]
- 2
Pure or highly concentrated caffeine products had been linked to at least 2 deaths in the United States, the FDA said in its 2018 guidance.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Guidance for Industry: Highly Concentrated Caffeine in Dietary Supplements (2018) · 2018 data [35]
- 10,000 to 14,000 mg
A life-threatening dose of caffeine is typically estimated at 10,000 to 14,000 mg, far above the roughly 1,200 mg at which toxic effects such as seizures appear, though smaller doses can be life-threatening for some people such as children, according to the FDA's 2018 guidance on pure and highly concentrated caffeine.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Guidance for Industry: Highly Concentrated Caffeine in Dietary Supplements (2018) · 2018 data [35]
| Substance | Single exposures | Age 5 or under | Treated in a health care facility | Major outcome | Deaths |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Caffeine | 2,751 | 1,305 | 640 | 16 | 2 |
| Energy drinks: caffeine containing | 1,418 | 840 | 229 | 4 | 0 |
| Energy drinks: caffeine only | 869 | 569 | 132 | 4 | 0 |
How common are energy drinks?
Few Americans drink an energy drink on a given day, but the share grew more than tenfold among young adults between 2003 and 2016 in NHANES dietary recall data. People who do drink them take in far more caffeine overall.
Source: Vercammen et al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2019), analysis of NHANES 2003-2016. Chart: Brew Gazette, free to reuse with a link to this page.
Show chart data
| Ages 12-19, 2003 | 0.2% |
|---|---|
| Ages 12-19, 2016 | 1.4% |
| Ages 20-39, 2003 | 0.5% |
| Ages 20-39, 2016 | 5.5% |
| Ages 40-59, 2003 | 0.0% |
| Ages 40-59, 2016 | 1.2% |
- 5.5%
The share of US young adults aged 20 to 39 who consumed an energy drink on a given day rose from 0.5% to 5.5% between 2003 and 2016, according to an analysis of NHANES dietary recall data by Vercammen et al.
Vercammen et al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2019), analysis of NHANES 2003-2016 · 2003-2016 data [36]
- 1.4%
The share of US adolescents aged 12 to 19 who consumed an energy drink on a given day rose from 0.2% to 1.4% between 2003 and 2016 (Vercammen et al., NHANES).
Vercammen et al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2019), analysis of NHANES 2003-2016 · 2003-2016 data [36]
- 278.7 mg
US young adults aged 20 to 39 who consumed energy drinks took in 278.7 mg of caffeine per day in total, versus 135.3 mg for non-consumers, pooled across NHANES 2003-2016 (Vercammen et al.).
Vercammen et al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2019), analysis of NHANES 2003-2016 · 2003-2016 data [36]
How much caffeine do Europeans consume?
EFSA's 2015 caffeine safety opinion estimated intake from food and beverages using national dietary surveys in its Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. Nordic and western European adults consume the most, and coffee is the main source almost everywhere except Ireland and the UK, where tea leads.
- 37 to 319 mg
Mean daily caffeine intake from all sources among adults ranged from 37 mg to 319 mg across 16 EU Member States, with 95th percentiles from 109 mg to 742 mg, according to national surveys compiled by EFSA in its 2015 opinion.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine, EFSA Journal 13(5):4102 (2015) · 1999-2012 (varies by country) data [37]
- 319.4 mg
Danish adults aged 18 to 64 had the highest mean caffeine intake of any general adult (18 to 64) survey in EFSA's comparison, 319.4 mg per day (DANSDA 2005-2008 survey), and 32.9% had a mean daily intake above 400 mg (EFSA 2015, Appendix B).
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine, EFSA Journal 13(5):4102 (2015) · 2005-2008 data [37]
- 32.9%
In 7 of 13 EU countries, the 95th percentile of adult daily caffeine intake exceeded 400 mg, and the share of adults above 400 mg ranged from about 6% to almost one-third (32.9%), according to EFSA's 2015 opinion.
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine, EFSA Journal 13(5):4102 (2015) · 1999-2012 (varies by country) data [37]
| Country | Survey | Mean (mg/day) | 95th percentile (mg/day) | Above 400 mg/day (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Denmark | DANSDA 2005-2008 | 319.4 | 742.4 | 32.9 |
| Netherlands | VCP Basis AVL2007-2010 | 258.5 | 589.2 | 17.6 |
| Germany | National Nutrition Survey II | 238.0 | 538.7 | 14.6 |
| Finland | FINDIET2012 | 236.0 | 538.5 | 13.4 |
| Sweden | Riksmaten 2010 | 205.3 | 482.2 | 9.0 |
| Belgium | Diet National 2004 | 191.9 | 543.3 | 10.4 |
| France | INCA2 | 154.5 | 414.0 | 5.8 |
| Latvia | EFSA TEST | 149.4 | 310.4 | 1.6 |
| Ireland | NANS 2012 | 149.0 | 346.2 | 3.0 |
| Italy | INRAN SCAI 2005-2006 | 139.3 | 323.1 | 2.1 |
| United Kingdom | NDNS Rolling Programme Years 1-3 | 138.2 | 318.4 | 2.4 |
| Czech Republic | SISP04 | 124.8 | 269.7 | 1.2 |
| Hungary | National Repr Surv | 103.0 | 268.1 | 1.4 |
| Spain | AESAN FIAB | 66.8 | 156.0 | 1.5 |
| Spain | AESAN 1999-2001 | 51.6 | 157.2 | 0.2 |
| Romania | Dieta Pilot Adults | 36.5 | 108.6 | 0.1 |
Methodology
How much caffeine Americans consume comes first from USDA's What We Eat in America (WWEIA), the dietary interview part of the CDC's National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). WWEIA Table 1 reports mean caffeine from food and beverages per person on day 1 of a 24-hour dietary recall, counting people who had no caffeine as zero. We used the newest release, August 2021 to August 2023, and the same table for every cycle back to 2001-2002 to build the trend. The 2021-2023 recalls were collected by telephone rather than in person, so part of the drop from 2017 to March 2020 may reflect the change in method.
Other intake figures measure different things, and we keep them apart. Kantar Worldpanel beverage panels analysed by Mitchell et al. count caffeine from beverages only, and their 210 mg mean covers caffeine consumers only, so it is higher than WWEIA's per-person mean by construction. The 2014 Kantar study (85%) used 7-day diaries and the 2025 study (69%) a one-day survey, so the two shares are not a trend. NHANES research papers (Fulgoni, Branum, Drewnowski and Rehm, Vercammen) count any caffeine on a single recall day. Branum's children and young people are aged 2 to 22.
Caffeine limits are guidance from regulators and medical bodies, not measurements, and they are listed by authority: the FDA, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Health Canada, the UK NHS, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). We found no primary AAP document for the widely repeated figure of 100 mg a day for teenagers, so it is not on this page. Caffeine content per serving comes from USDA FoodData Central (SR Legacy), with per-serving values calculated by Brew Gazette from USDA's milligrams per 100 grams, alongside the FDA's and Health Canada's own figures and two laboratory studies of coffee-shop coffee.
Addiction and withdrawal figures come from peer-reviewed studies: Sweeney et al. (2020) for caffeine use disorder in a US online panel of 1,006 caffeine users, the Juliano and Griffiths (2004) review for withdrawal, and a 1998 University of Vermont telephone survey. The withdrawal rates come from experimental abstinence studies, not population surveys. Poison center counts come from the National Poison Data System annual reports of America's Poison Centers and cover cases in which caffeine was the only substance, so total caffeine involvement is higher. Energy drink exposures are a separate category and are not added to the caffeine count. Emergency department figures come from SAMHSA's Drug Abuse Warning Network, which ended its original emergency department series after 2011.
Every figure on this page was taken from the original publication or data table, with the exact source text kept on file, and checked against that source before publishing. Figures we worked out ourselves, such as per-serving caffeine and the change between WWEIA cycles, are marked as a Brew Gazette calculation.
Spot an error or a newer figure? Tell us and we will correct the page and note the change.
Cite this page
Free to quote, chart or link in articles, reports and coursework. Please credit the original source for each figure and link to this page as the compilation.
Brew Gazette. (2026, November 10). Caffeine Statistics 2026. https://brewgazette.com/caffeine-statistics/
"Caffeine Statistics 2026." Brew Gazette, 10 Nov. 2026, brewgazette.com/caffeine-statistics.
Brew Gazette. "Caffeine Statistics 2026." Last modified November 10, 2026. https://brewgazette.com/caffeine-statistics/
<a href="https://brewgazette.com/caffeine-statistics/">Caffeine Statistics 2026</a> (Brew Gazette)
Frequently asked questions
How much caffeine does the average American consume per day?
US adults aged 20 and over averaged 148.9 mg of caffeine a day from food and beverages in August 2021 to August 2023, and Americans aged 2 and over averaged 118.7 mg, according to USDA's What We Eat in America survey. Those averages count people who had no caffeine as zero. Counting only people who drank caffeinated beverages, a 2022 Kantar Worldpanel survey analysed by Mitchell et al. found a mean of 210 mg a day.
What percentage of Americans consume caffeine?
About 69% of Americans aged 2 and over drank at least one caffeinated beverage on the survey day in 2022 (Kantar Worldpanel, analysed by Mitchell et al.). Federal NHANES data, which count caffeine from any food or drink, found that about 89% of US adults consumed some caffeine on a given day in 2001 to 2010, and about 73% of children and young people aged 2 to 22 did in 1999 to 2010.
How much caffeine is too much?
The FDA cites 400 mg a day, about two to three 12-ounce cups of coffee, as an amount not generally associated with negative effects for most healthy adults, and EFSA and Health Canada use the same 400 mg figure. EFSA also found single doses up to 200 mg raise no safety concern for healthy adults. The FDA estimates that toxic effects such as seizures can appear when someone rapidly consumes around 1,200 mg.
How common is caffeine addiction?
In a survey of 1,006 US adults who consume caffeine, published in 2020 by Sweeney et al., 8% met all three key proposed criteria for caffeine use disorder, and 34% reported a persistent desire or failed efforts to cut down. Caffeine use disorder is not an official diagnosis: the American Psychiatric Association lists it in the DSM-5-TR section for conditions that need further research, while caffeine withdrawal is a recognized diagnosis.
How common is caffeine withdrawal, and how long does it last?
In experimental studies reviewed by Juliano and Griffiths in 2004, 50% of habitual caffeine users who stopped developed a headache and 13% had clinically significant distress or impairment. Symptoms typically begin 12 to 24 hours after the last dose, peak at 20 to 51 hours and last 2 to 9 days, and stopping doses as low as 100 mg a day can produce them.
How much caffeine is in a cup of coffee?
USDA FoodData Central values work out to about 95 mg of caffeine in an 8-ounce cup of brewed coffee (a Brew Gazette calculation from USDA's per-100 g figure). The FDA gives a range of 113 to 247 mg for a 12-ounce cup, and Health Canada lists 135 mg for an 8-ounce cup. Cups vary widely: a 2003 study found the same coffee from the same shop ranged from 259 to 564 mg over six days.
How many caffeine overdoses happen each year?
US poison centers recorded 2,751 cases in 2024 in which caffeine was the only substance involved, and 1,305 of them were children aged 5 or younger, according to America's Poison Centers. Those cases led to 2 deaths. Emergency department visits involving energy drinks doubled from 10,068 in 2007 to 20,783 in 2011, according to the most recent federal estimates from SAMHSA's Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN).
How much caffeine is safe during pregnancy?
ACOG says moderate caffeine use, less than 200 mg a day, does not appear to be a major factor in miscarriage or preterm birth, while EFSA and the UK NHS set a limit of 200 mg a day. Health Canada's limit is 300 mg a day for people who are pregnant, planning a pregnancy or breastfeeding. A 1981 study measured a mean caffeine half-life of 8.3 hours in pregnant women against 3.4 hours in other adults.
Sources
- Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2025), Kantar Worldpanel Enhanced Beverage Service 2022 pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Mitchell et al., Food and Chemical Toxicology (2014), Kantar Worldpanel Beverage Consumption Panel pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Fulgoni et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2015), analysis of NHANES 2001-2010 ajcn.nutrition.org
- Branum et al., Pediatrics (2014), analysis of NHANES 1999-2010 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (2024) ars.usda.gov
- USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES 2003-2004, Table 1 ars.usda.gov
- USDA ARS, What We Eat in America, NHANES 2001-2002 to August 2021-August 2023, Table 1 (each cycle) ars.usda.gov
- Drewnowski and Rehm, Nutrients (2016), analysis of NHANES 1999-2012 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Spilling the Beans: How Much Caffeine is Too Much? (consumer update) fda.gov
- McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of specialty coffees. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2003;27(7):520-522 (abstract on PubMed) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- McCusker RR, Fuehrlein B, Goldberger BA, Gold MS, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of decaffeinated coffee. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2006;30(8):611-613 (abstract on PubMed) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Health Canada, Caffeine in Foods canada.ca
- European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Caffeine topic page summarising its 2015 Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine efsa.europa.eu
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), FoodData Central, SR Legacy; per-serving figures are a Brew Gazette calculation fdc.nal.usda.gov
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), Sports Drinks and Energy Drinks for Children and Adolescents: Are They Appropriate? (clinical report, Pediatrics 2011;127(6):1182-1189), abstract on PubMed pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), Committee Opinion No. 462: Moderate Caffeine Consumption During Pregnancy acog.org
- NHS (UK National Health Service), Foods to avoid in pregnancy nhs.uk
- Knutti R, Rothweiler H, Schlatter C. Effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 1981;21(2):121-126 (abstract on PubMed) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research, Caffeine for the Sustainment of Mental Task Performance (2001), chapter 2: Pharmacology of Caffeine (NCBI Bookshelf) ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Drake C, Roehrs T, Shambroom J, Roth T. Caffeine Effects on Sleep Taken 0, 3, or 6 Hours before Going to Bed. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 2013;9(11):1195-1200 (PMC) pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), HealthyChildren.org: The Effects of Caffeine on Kids: A Parent's Guide healthychildren.org
- Sweeney et al., Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research (2020) pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Meredith et al., Journal of Caffeine Research (2013) pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Hughes et al., Drug and Alcohol Dependence (1998) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- American Psychiatric Association (APA), DSM-5 fact sheet (2013) psychiatry.org
- Juliano and Griffiths, Psychopharmacology (2004) pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- America's Poison Centers, 2024 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2025) piper.filecamp.com
- America's Poison Centers, 2023 Annual Report of the National Poison Data System (NPDS), Clinical Toxicology (2024) piper.filecamp.com
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), The DAWN Report (2013) samhsa.gov
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Guidance for Industry: Highly Concentrated Caffeine in Dietary Supplements (2018) fda.gov
- Vercammen et al., American Journal of Preventive Medicine (2019), analysis of NHANES 2003-2016 pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Scientific Opinion on the safety of caffeine, EFSA Journal 13(5):4102 (2015) efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com